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?Chapter Outline 
I. Overview of Rogers's Person-Centered Theory Although Carl Rogers is most efficient known as being the founder of client-centered therapy, he also developed an important theory of personality that underscores his process to therapy. 
II. Biography of Carl Rogers Carl Rogers was born into a devoutly religious family in a very Chicago suburb in 1902. After the family moved into a farm near Chicago, Carl became interested in scientific farming and learned to appreciate the scientific method. When he graduated from the University of Wisconsin, Rogers intended to become a minister, but he gave up that notion and completed a Ph.D. in psychology from Columbia University in 1931. In 1940, after nearly a dozen years absent from an academic life working as a clinician, he took a position at Ohio State University. Later, he held positions in the University of Chicago also, the University of Wisconsin. In 1964, he moved to California where he helped found the Center for Studies in the Person. He died in 1987 at age 85. 
III. Person-Centered Theory Rogers carefully crafted his person-centered theory of personality to meet his individual demands for a structural design that could explain and predict outcomes of client-centered therapy. However, the theory has implications far beyond the therapeutic setting. A. Simple Assumptions Person-centered theory rests on two essential assumptions: (1) the formative tendency, which states that all matter, both of those organic and inorganic, tends to evolve from simpler to even more complex varieties, and (two) an actualizing tendency, which suggests that all living things, together with humans, tend to move toward completion, or fulfillment of potentials. However, in order for people (or plants and animals) to become actualized, certain identifiable conditions must be existing. For a person, these conditions include a relationship with another person who is genuine, or congruent, and who demonstrates comprehensive acceptance and empathy for that person. B. The Self and Self-Actualization A perception of self or personal identity begins to emerge during infancy, and, once established, it facilitates a person to strive toward self-actualization, which can be a subsystem with the actualization tendency and refers to the tendency to actualize the self as perceived in awareness. The self has two subsystems: (1) the self-concept, which incorporates all those aspects of one's identity that are perceived in awareness, and (two) the ideal self, or our check out of our self as we would like to be or aspire to be. Once formed, the self concept tends to resist change, and gaps concerning it and also ideal self result in incongruence and various sorts of degrees of psychopathology. 
C. Awareness People are aware of both equally their self-concept and their ideal self, although awareness will be needing not be accurate or in a superior degree. Rogers saw people as having experiences on three concentrations of awareness: (1) those that are symbolized below the threshold of awareness and are either ignored or denied, that may be, subceived, or not allowed into the self-concept; (two) those that are distorted or reshaped to fit it into an current self-concept; and (3) those that are consistent with the self-concept and thus are accurately symbolized and freely admitted to the self-structure. Any undergo not consistent with the self-concept-even positive experiences-will be distorted or denied. D. Needs The two simple human needs are maintenance and enhancement, but people also really want positive regard and self-regard. Maintenance needs include those for food, air, and safety, however they also include our tendency to resist change and to retain our self-concept as it is. Enhancement needs include needs to grow and to realize one's extensive human potential. As awareness of self emerges, an infant begins to obtain positive regard from another person-that is, to be loved or accepted. People naturally value those experiences that satisfy their needs for positive regard, but, unfortunately, this value usually becomes greater powerful than the reward they obtain for meeting their organismic needs. This sets up the condition of incongruence, which is seasoned when fundamental organismic needs are denied or distorted in favor of needs to be loved or accepted. As a result of experiences with positive regard, people build up the require for self-regard, which they acquire only after they perceive that someone else cares for them and values them. Once established, however, self-regard becomes autonomous and no longer dependent on another's continuous positive evaluation. E. Conditions of Worth Most people are not unconditionally accepted. Instead, they acquire conditions of worth; which is, they sense that they are loved and accepted only when and if they meet the conditions established by others. F. Psychological Stagnation Once the organismic self plus the self-concept are at variance with one particular another, a person may undergo incongruence, which features vulnerability, threat, defensiveness, and even disorganization. The greater the incongruence concerning self-concept as well as the organismic encounter, the a great deal more vulnerable that person becomes. Anxiety exists whenever the person becomes dimly aware in the discrepancy among organismic know-how and self-concept, whereas threat is expert whenever the person becomes increased clearly aware of this incongruence. To prevent incongruence, people react with defensiveness, typically on the kinds of distortion and denial. With distortion, people misinterpret an encounter so that it fits into their self-concept; with denial, people refuse to permit the adventure into awareness. When people's defenses fail to operate properly, their behavior becomes disorganized or psychotic. With disorganization, people in certain cases behave consistently with their organismic undergo and quite often in accordance with their shattered self-concept. 
IV. Psychotherapy For client-centered psychotherapy to be effective, certain conditions are necessary: A vulnerable client must have contact of some duration which includes a counselor who is congruent, and who demonstrates unconditional positive regard and listens with empathy to your client. The client must in turn perceive the congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathy of your therapist. If these conditions are existing, then the technique of therapy will take area and certain predictable outcomes will result. A. Conditions Three conditions are crucial to client-centered therapy, and Rogers called them the necessary and sufficient conditions for therapeutic growth. The initial is counselor congruence, or a therapist whose organismic experiences are matched by an awareness and by the ability and willingness to openly express these feelings. Congruence is a whole lot more simple than one other two conditions as a result of it could be a relatively stable characteristic in the therapist, whereas one other two conditions are confined to the unique therapeutic relationship. Unconditional positive regard exists once the therapist accepts the client without conditions or qualifications. Empathic listening is the therapist's ability to feeling the feelings of the client and also to communicate these perceptions so that the client knows that another person has entered into his or her world of feelings without prejudice, projection, or evaluation. B. Strategy Rogers saw the plan of therapeutic change as taking spot in seven stages: (1) clients are unwilling to communicate anything about themselves; (two) they discuss only external events and other people; (3) they begin to talk about themselves, but even now as an object; (four) they discuss sturdy emotions that they have felt with the past; (5) they begin to express existing feelings; (6) they freely help into awareness those experiences that had been previously denied or distorted; and (7) they encounter irreversible change and growth. C. Outcomes When client-centered therapy is successful, clients become added congruent, less defensive, added open to have, and a lot more realistic. The gap among their ideal self and their true self narrows and, as a consequence, clients practical experience less physiological and psychological tension. Finally, clients' interpersonal relationships improve for the reason that they are additional accepting of self and others. 
V. The Person of Tomorrow Rogers was vitally interested inside of the psychologically healthy person, called the &quot;fully functioning person&quot; or the &quot;person of tomorrow.&quot; Rogers listed seven characteristics for the person of tomorrow. The person of tomorrow (1) is able to adjust to change, (two) is open to knowledge, (3) is able to live fully inside moment, (four) is able to have harmonious relations with others, (5) is a great deal more integrated with no artificial boundaries relating to conscious and unconscious processes, (6) has a general trust of human nature, and (7) enjoys a greater richness in life. The factors have implications equally with the individual and for society. 
VI. Philosophy of Science Rogers agreed with Maslow that scientists must care about and be involved inside of the phenomena they study which psychologists should limit their objectivity and precision to their methodology, not to the generation of hypotheses or to the communication of research findings. 
VII. The Chicago Study When he taught for the University of Chicago, Rogers, along with colleagues and graduate students, conducted a sophisticated and complex study to the effectiveness of psychotherapy. A. Hypotheses This study tested four broad hypotheses. As a consequence of therapy (1) clients will become much more aware of their feelings and experiences, (two) the gap around the real self and therefore the ideal self will lessen; (3) clients' behavior will become way more socialized and mature; and (four) clients will become both equally a lot more self-accepting and much more accepting of others. B. Method Participants had been adults who sought therapy on the University of Chicago counseling center. Experimenters asked 50 percent of these to wait sixty days before receiving therapy at the same time beginning therapy with one other 50 percent. Also, they tested a control group of &quot;normals&quot; who had been matched with the therapy group. This control group was also divided into a wait group as well as a non-wait group. C. Findings Rogers and his associates found that the therapy group-but not the wait group-showed a lessening for the gap involving real self and ideal self. They also found that clients who improved during therapy-but not those rated as least improved-showed changes in social behavior, as noted by friends. D. Summary of Outcome Although client-centered therapy was successful in changing clients, it was not successful in bringing them to the amount with the fully functioning persons or even to the stage of &quot;normal&quot; psychological health. 
VIII. Related Research A good deal more a short while ago, other researchers have investigated Rogers's facilitative conditions both equally outside the house therapy and within just therapy. A. Facilitative Conditions Outdoors Therapy On the United Kingdom, Duncan Cramer has conducted a series of studies investigating the therapeutic qualities of Rogers's facilitative conditions in interpersonal relationships exterior of therapy. Cramer found positive relationships concerning self-esteem, as measured by the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, as well as four facilitative conditions that make up the Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory-level of regard, unconditionality of regard, congruence, and empathy. Moreover, the direction within the relationship strongly suggested that Rogers's facilitative conditions precede the acquisition of higher ranges of self-esteem. B. Facilitative Conditions and Couples Therapy In Belgium, Alfons Vansteenwegen (1996) made use of a revised kind from the Barrett-Lennard to determine if Rogers's facilitative conditions related to success during couples therapy. He found that client-centered couples therapy can bring about positive changes in couples, which a few of these changes lasted for at least seven years after therapy. 
IX. Critique of Rogers Rogers's person-centered theory is 1 within the most carefully constructed of all personality theories, and it meets pretty clearly each individual within the six criteria of the useful theory. It rates very huge on internal consistency and parsimony, significant on its ability to be falsified and to generate research, and high-average on its ability to organize knowledge and to serve as a guide to the practitioner. 
X. Concept of Humanity Rogers believed that humans have the capacity to change and grow-provided that certain necessary and sufficient conditions are existing. Therefore, his theory rates very significant on optimism. Also, it rates great on 100 percent free choice, teleology, conscious motivation, social influences, and then the uniqueness belonging to the individual. 
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